Search Results

Written by: Caroline Kim October 29, 2022 Today, we’ll dive into the article “Epiphyte response to drought and experimental warming in an Andean cloud forest” by Miles R. Silman and Joshua M. Rapp. Epiphytes are a unique way in which plants grow on another plant, are not parasitic, and have no contact to the ground (Petruzzello). Due to their unique nature, most grow in tropical ecosystems that provide plenty of moisture, nutrients, and sunlight (Petruzzello). Tropical Montane Forests (cloud forests) pair well with epiphytes due to the nutrients cycling and nurturing of biodiversity; in fact, “epiphytes are considered indicator species in cloud forests for changing water balance conditions” (Rapp). With that in mind, in these cloud forest regions, atmospheric conditions are expected to change with climate change, but are harder to predict. A concern for these cloud conditions include elevated base height of clouds, which has had detrimental effects in Costa Rica, where there was a much higher leaf mortality; this can’t quite be generalized to the Andes though, which may have higher resistance due to being in more variable conditions instead of a more localized cloud forest (Rapp). The two research questions considered by Rapp and Silman were the resulting demographic changes from being moved from their normal elevation and is this effect more definitive in down-slope/warmer/drier conditions (such as Costa Rica) (Rapp). Specific data and procedures for the experiment is detailed in the article (link on the home page). After concluding the experiment, the researchers discovered that “... warmer temperatures and lower cloud immersion will cause community-level changes for species currently above the cloud base” (Rapp). Additionally they discovered how regionally, the plant responses differed: “The response to transplanting was strongest in those transplanted from the highest elevation, which is coolest and has the highest degree of cloud immersion. Epiphytes from lower elevations only benefitted slightly from increased water availability and cooler temperatures, possibly indicating they are better adapted to withstand heat and drought stress” (Rapp). Surprisingly, there was a decent resistance to transplant-induced moisture stress due to competing factors of sufficient rainfall and tolerance from varying conditions (Rapp). The researchers concluded that dry seasons may in fact be beneficial for building up tolerance in epiphytes. They do mention that it is important to still be aware of the impact epiphytes have on the environment and how disruption can impact the entire ecosystem (Rapps). Sources: Rapp JM and Silman MR. Epiphyte response to drought and experimental warming in an Andean cloud forest [version 2; peer review: 2 approved]. F1000Research 2014, 3:7 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.3-7.v2) Petruzzello, Melissa. "epiphyte". Encyclopedia Britannica, 12 Mar. 2020, https://www.britannica.com/plant/epiphyte. Accessed 30 October 2022.

Written by: Caroline Kim October 22, 2022 Amidst continuing environmental challenges and efforts in our ever growing society, paving the way for future generations is crucial. And according to Audley and Stein, properly nurturing children's understanding and relationship with nature is key. Today, their article “Creating an Environmental Resiliency Framework: Changing Children’s Personal and Cultural Narratives to Build Environmental Resiliency” will be reviewed and key points will be selected to dive into what is most important in guiding younger generations to better care for the environment than those before them. Right off the bat, the importance of narrative of the environment being incorporated into cultures is emphasized; this includes myths, legends, and stories. “To create resilient and balanced life ways, we need to change the stories we tell to bring them in line with a more sustainable future” (Audley, 2). The efficacy of simple storytelling and normalized narratives is shown in an example provided: “The idea that life in the USA is materially better than life elsewhere, and that individuals can become wealthy through their own actions continue to be powerful narratives drawing immigrants from around the world” (Audley, 3). While this narrational aspect is significant to children’s understanding of environmental ethics, they must also see a shared interest in those they look up to. “For children to build a resilient approach to looming issues such as climate change, they must sense that the adults in their lives are engaged in activism on their behalf” (Audlry, 4). Additionally, Audley and Stein emphasize the need for spending time outdoors in nature and having meaningful conversations, even when negative events occur; “Persons with an ecological sense of self are more likely to behave in a manner that is consistent with their beliefs, including spending more time outdoors and behaving in ways that are congruent with environmental concerns (Audley, 6). In their conclusion, they provide directions including fostering a reserved time for proper discussion and proposing schoolwide environmental frameworks to assimilate environmental concerns into daily discussions. In terms of future policy and methods to bring abstract concepts to life, Rolston suggests “Both policy and ethics will be required… if environmental ethics can persuade large numbers of persons that an environment with biodiversity, with wilderness is a better world in which to live than one without these… that will get us clean air, water, soil conservation, national parks, some wildlife reserves and bird sanctuaries” (Rolston, 13). Environmental policies and moving forward with enforced regulations can be very sensitive to an idea; in past discussions with professors, I have heard suggestions as simple as placing a price on carbon emissions. While it is such a simple idea, the specific rules and requirements would need defining. Even in the closest city where I live, there were disagreements over how rain should be taxed (property size, the quantity of contribution, etc.). However, with meaningful discussion and efforts from today’s generations, I believe a better environmental ethic can be embraced by younger generations. Sources: Audley, Shannon R, and Ninian R Stein. “Creating an Environmental Resiliency Framework: Changing Children's Personal and Cultural Narratives to Build Environmental Resiliency, Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences.” DeepDyve, Springer US, 4 Mar. 2016, https://www.deepdyve.com/lp/springer-journal/creating-an-environmental-resiliency-framework-changing-children-s-bNYv5NGWSz. Rolston, Holmes. “The Future of Environmental Ethics* - Mountain Scholar.” Mountain Scholar, 2011, https://mountainscholar.org/bitstream/handle/10217/70417/Future-Env-Ethics-Royal-Inst-Phil.pdf.

Written by: Caroline Kim October 15, 2022 One of my personal interests in environmental history are the ice ages, which began approximately 2.4 million years ago and lasted up until 11,500 years ago; essentially, they were time periods in which the climate constantly shifted back and forth between colder and warmer periods (When Were the Ices Ages and Why Are They Called That?). “Along with solar radiation levels, it is believed that global warming and cooling is connected to plate tectonic activity. The shifting of the Earth’s plates creates large-scale changes to continental masses, which impacts ocean and atmospheric currents, and triggers volcanic activity that releases carbon dioxide into the air” (History.com Editors). These ideas are consistent even with contemporary climate change such as the greenhouse effect. The ramifications are significant to earth’s geography, biodiversity, and overall function considering “large-scale glaciation may last several million years and drastically reshape surface features of entire continents'' (Britannica). Some of the most distinguishing remnants of these glacial periods are glacial sediments and erosion, which “... sculpted deep alpine valleys…” (Belknap). As temperatures change, organisms and biotic life are forced to adapt or go extinct. Additionally, ice melt can cause rise in global sea levels, ecological mismatch, shrubification, continue on positive albedo feedback loops, and more (which can be found in previous posts on the Arctic Ice series). Loss of species from the ice age can be credited to the change in food available, human hunting, or even extraterrestrial impact (Ice Age Extinction: The New York State Museum). The change in resources, migration, and the consequential change in energy transfer across the food chain can cause a series of ramifications, resulting in the extinction of species. For example, research has shown that mammoths most likely went extinct due to lack of vegetation available (Davla). All in all, historical ice ages heavily impacted earth’s climate, biodiversity, sea levels, landscapes, earth currents, and inevitably humans. Though not as dramatic, information collected from research on these time periods can be applicable to today’s climate issue and may assist in finding solutions. Sources: “When Were the Ices Ages and Why Are They Called That?” When Were the Ices Ages and Why Are They Called That? - Mammoth Discovery, Children's Discovery Museum of San Jose, https://www.cdm.org/mammothdiscovery/wheniceages.html#:~:text=The%20Ice%20Ages%20began%202.4,many%20of%20the%20glaciers%20melted. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "ice age". Encyclopedia Britannica, 12 Sep. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/ice-age-geology. Accessed 15 October 2022. Belknap, Daniel F.. "Quaternary". Encyclopedia Britannica, 24 Aug. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/Quaternary. Accessed 15 October 2022. History.com Editors. “Ice Age.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 11 Mar. 2015, https://www.history.com/topics/pre-history/ice-age#section_1. “Ice Age Extinction: The New York State Museum.” Ice Age Extinction | The New York State Museum, http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/exhibitions/online/ice-ages/ice-age-extinction. Davla, Sejal. “Finding the Cause of Mammoth Extinction.” The Scientist Magazine®, 7 Sept. 2022, https://www.the-scientist.com/sponsored-article/finding-the-cause-of-mammoth-extinction-70463#:~:text=Environmental%20DNA%20and%20climate%20change,herbivore%20species%2C%20including%20Arctic%20mammoths.

October 8, 2022 Written by: Caroline Kim Earth’s functions as a very complex unit, but there are five fundamental biogeochemical cycles that allow our planet to contain life. A biogeochemical cycle is the movement of a particular chemical through the biologica, geological, or living and nonliving parts of an ecosystem (Science Safari). Of these five are: the hydrologic, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous cycle. Starting off with the most popular cycle: the hydrologic cycle, better known as the water cycle. In this cycle, condensation occurs in which water vapor turns into liquid, forming a cloud; after this, precipitation occurs in which it rains and water ends up in a body of water or runs off. Percolation may also occur in which water soaks into the ground and soil. Following this event, water changes form into water vapor (evaporation) or transpires when water evaporates from a leaf. From here, the cycle repeats, allowing for photosynthesis to occur and allowing water to be used as a source for all organisms on earth (Science Safari). Next up is the oxygen cycle, in which plants can release up to 470 billion tons of oxygen during photosynthesis. This oxygen is stored in the ozone layer of the atmosphere as O3, earth’s crust, oceans, and is used by animals and humans for respiration. In the earth’s atmosphere, it acts as a buffer against ultraviolet rays and is key for survival (more can be found on the earth’s atmosphere post). Oxygen is also a necessary component of decomposition such as oxidation: the process by which metal rusts (Science Safari). The carbon cycle is one that is relevant in environmental studies, as it contributes to the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide is take up by plants during the process of photosynthesis, but also released by humans and animals during respiration. The ocean is key in this cycle, as it dissolves CO2 easily and helps regulate the cycle. The part where carbon becomes a concern is when huge quantities are stored in decayed animals and plants, which are then burned as fossil fuels such as coal, oils, and natural gas. Too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can induce global warming, climate change, and ecological disaster (Science Safari). Our atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen gas and naturally plays a key role. Because this nitrogen in the atmosphere can not be directly utilized, a process known as nitrogen fixation occurs to make it more accessible. Nitrogen can be found in animal waste and is often used by higher organisms to make proteins. In addition, the nitrogen in the soil is denitrified by bacteria, so that it can be used again by plants. It is a resource for animals, plants, and cycles through our soil and atmosphere to support life on earth (Science Safari). Last but not least is the only cycle without a gaseous phase: the phosphorus cycle. Most of the phosphorus on earth can be found in rocks and minerals and is essential for chemicals such as DNA. Phosphorus often cycles from soils and plants, to animals, then is returned to nature as waste. Phosphorus can be washed into basins or produced from man-made pollution, and can cause dangerous levels of plant overgrowth when too plentiful. In other words, too many phosphorus rich fertilizers can result in agricultural runoff known as eutrophication (Science Safari). Sources: Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "biogeochemical cycle". Encyclopedia Britannica, 6 Oct. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/biogeochemical-cycle. Accessed 8 October 2022. Britannica, “Nitrogen Fixation.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 8 Oct. 2022, https://www.britannica.com/science/nitrogen-fixation/images-videos#/media/1/416291/7 Science Safari Foldable

Written by: Caroline Kim October 1, 2022 Simply put, Islands are a small chunk of land surrounded by water. Islands have become a major tourist location, and are often famous for their beautiful environment, climate, and culture. One you’ve probably heard of is the Hawaiian Islands in the U.S., known for their beaches, volcanoes, and historical significance. However, Islands serve as more than just vacation destinations for humans: they are homes to rare species, act as conservation frontiers, are resting stations, and facilitate coral reefs (Kaiser). Their formations, disappearance, and functions can all be found here today. There are 6 major types of islands to take note of: continental, tidal, barrier, oceanic, coral, and artificial (Island). The idea behind continental islands is that they are pieces of a continent that drifted off over time, an example being Greenland; another continental formation is caused by changes in sea level or weathering, causing some mainlands to become islands (Island). In a tidal formation, the land connecting the smaller piece to the mainland is not entirely diminished, but rather just underwater; this can be credited to high tide (Island). Barrier Islands are strips of sediment, coral, silt, or gravel. They often act as buffers against storms and are separated from shores by lagoons (Island). These can form from events such as ice melt, which cause global rise in sea levels. Oceanic/Volcanic islands are formed from the buildup of lava from erupted volcanoes; the ones that break the surface of the water are known as islands, and the ones shy of the surface are known as seamounts (Island). As indicated by its name, coral islands consist of coral reefs (calcium carbonate skeletons) that have accumulated enough above the surface to become an individual island (Island). In fact, the Bahamas and Caribbean Islands are coral islands. For agricultural and developmental purposes, artificial islands are made by man. However, islands also disappear in unique ways: liquefaction, sinkholes, and concrete seawalls. Liquefaction is just what it sounds like: loose water filled sediments loose their structure from shaking (What is Liquefaction). Sinkholes form when the sediment/ground (limestone, carbonate rock, salt beds, etc.) is dissolved from groundwater, diminishing the ground below it (Water Science School). Climate change contributes to the disappearing of islands and has proven time and time again to be a concern for the earth; climate change is the source of many ecological ramifications, and new solutions such as sea level regulators or water storage systems would be beneficial towards neutralizing the effects. Sources: Kaiser, Sara. “5 Reasons Islands Are Important for the Planet.” Island Conservation, 23 May 2017, https://www.islandconservation.org/five-reasons-islands-are-important-for-the-planet/#:~:text=Islands%20are%20key%20foundations%20for,as%20the%20Island%20Mass%20Effect. “Island.” Edited by Jeannie Evers, National Geographic Society, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/island. Bastos, Jorge. “What Is Hawaii Famous for? 14 Things Fully Explained.” Travel Drafts, 6 Aug. 2022, https://www.traveldrafts.com/what-is-hawaii-famous-for/. “What Is Liquefaction?” What Is Liquefaction? | U.S. Geological Survey, https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-liquefaction#:~:text=Liquefaction%20takes%20place%20when%20loosely,cause%20major%20damage%20during%20earthquakes. Water Science School. “Sinkholes Completed.” Sinkholes | U.S. Geological Survey, https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/sinkholes.

September 24, 2022 Written by: Caroline Kim Recently, we discussed the atmospheric layers of the earth, and this week we’ll discuss the structure of earth. Earth’s structural layers make up landscapes, which have relevance to all wildlife and humans. The layers proceed as follows from outer to inner: the crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core. The crust and top part of the mantle is considered part of the lithosphere, while the rest of the mantle is considered what is known as the asthenosphere. The center (cores) is known as the geosphere. The first layer, the crust, reaches 25 miles below the ground from the surface. Consisting of mostly solid rocks and minerals, the “dynamic geology of earth’s crust is formed by plate tectonics” (Crust). This idea of plate tectonics essentially is the idea of continental drift, in which the plates of earth’s outer shell glide over the inner shells, which are malleable (Means). The depth, isostasy (forces the allow movement of the layers), and temperature all vary with the crust. In terms of temperature, the top of the crust can be similar to the climate of the region, but deeper down, temperatures can reach from 392- 752 degrees Fahrenheit (Crust). Though including igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, most of the crust is igneous. This seems logical, considering igneous rocks formed from cooled lava/magma, while sedimentary rocks are from accumulation of particles, and metamorphic rocks pressure/heat/chemicals (Three Types of Rock: Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic: AMNH). The next layer, 1802 miles thick and comprising 84% of earth's volume, is the mantle (Mantle). The mantle was formed from molten material and the process of outgassing where “Water trapped inside minerals erupted with lava” (Mantle). This layer consists of silicates, magnesium oxide, iron, etc. (Mantle). Temperatures in this layer range from 1832-6692 degrees Fahrenheit (increasing temperatures closer to the core); likewise, geothermal gradients (heat and pressure measurement) also increase as you near the core; however, due to mantle convection (transfer of heat to the lithosphere), the overall layer cools over time (Mantle). Due to these factors, this layer of the asthenosphere is much more malleable than the lithosphere. Another important aspect of this layer to take note of is the transition zone (255-410 miles below earth’s surface); here, the rocks’ crystalline structures adapt to become much more compact (Mantle). Surprisingly, this layer also happens to contain as much water as the oceans on earth’s surface: it exists in the form of hydroxide, which are trapped in the rocks’ structures (Mantle). Counterintuitively, the lower mantle (warmer) is actually much less ductile than the upper mantle (Mantle). Deep at the center of our planet is the sphere we call the earth’s core: hot, dense, 1802 miles below the surface, and has a radius of 2165 miles, and consists of mostly iron/nickel (Core). The outer core ranges in temperature from about 8,132- 9,932 degrees Fahrenheit and is quite malleable; this is where convection occurs, creating earth’s magnetic field (Core). On the other hand, the inner core’s temperature is approximately 9,392° Fahrenheit and has too great a density to be malleable (Core). This unique inner core doesn’t rotate in sync with the rest of earth, slightly different in direction and speed (Core). Understanding the function of earth’s geosphere is important for society in terms of energy, mineral, and water resources as well as infrastructure development (Benefits of Understanding the Earth at Its Core: U.S. Geological Survey). Sources: “Earth Structure.” National Geographic Society, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-earth-structure. “Crust.” Edited by Jeannie Evers, National Geographic Society, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/crust. Means, Tiffany. “What Is Plate Tectonics?” LiveScience, Purch, 13 May 2022, https://www.livescience.com/37706-what-is-plate-tectonics.html. “Three Types of Rock: Igneous, Sedimentary & Metamorphic: AMNH.” American Museum of Natural History, https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/planet-earth/how-do-we-read-the-rocks/three-types. “Mantle.” Edited by Jeannie Evers, National Geographic Society, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/mantle. “Core.” Edited by Jeannie Evers, National Geographic Society, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/core. “Benefits of Understanding the Earth at Its Core: U.S. Geological Survey.” Benefits of Understanding the Earth at Its Core | U.S. Geological Survey, https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/benefits-understanding-earth-its-core.

Written by: Caroline Kim September 3, 2022 Ideally, we would all live in a society of agreement and consideration on the topic of the environment. After all, it somehow relates to where all living things survive, and it affects everyone in some way. But in reality disagreements are inevitable. That is why policies are enforced: to place rules and proper codes of conduct. Environmental laws reach far- how stormwater infrastructure is best managed, city development, local parks, public spaces, and more. These affect everyone, so staying informed and involved is crucial in paving the best way for the future. As a democracy, U.S. citizens have the opportunity to influence elections; this way, the people choose our leader, which determines which ideas and concerns are prioritized. This ideal applies just as importantly to environmental policy as it does to many other topics. This is why being an active voter or member in one’s community is important. For example, in my adjacent city, a new mayor is to be elected. Though I am not eligible to vote yet (under 18), who becomes mayor is important to me, because I’d like someone who cares about the environment and is willing to enforce the most effective policies to be leading our community. For this reason, I am currently interning as a door-to-door canvassing campaigner to promote a local candidate for mayor. As someone who has been a successful Fairfax City councilmember, senior congressional aide, Lieutenant Commander in the U.S. Navy Reserve, former defense department intelligence professional, and advocate for environmental conservation, I knew Sang Yi would be a great candidate. He prioritizes sensible development so that city residents feel like their voices are being heard and their homes preserved. Even from the short amount of experience I have had, I’ve been able to learn more about the city environment, what the residents value, and the importance of staying informed! Every single individual’s vote, advocacy, and contribution influences the safety, progression, and community within the city. For more information on Councilman Sang Yi click on the link here: https://sangyiforfairfax.com/. I will continue to be an advocate in my community, and I hope you will too! Sources: “City of Fairfax, VA.” Councilmember Sang H. Yi, https://www.fairfaxva.gov/government/mayor-city-council/councilmember-sang-h-yi.

September 10, 2022 Written by: Caroline Kim A part of our environment that often goes unnoticed is the function of earth’s atmosphere. Though we quite see everyday the way we see trees, it plays a significant role in sustaining life on earth: providing protection from solar radiation, balancing gasses, and regulating climate (Kazmeyer). The sequence from inner to outer of the layers of our atmosphere are as follows: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere. The troposphere, reaching about 33,000 feet above sea level, holds nearly 80% of the atmosphere’s mass due to its containing the most moisture out of all the layers (Center for Science Education). This innermost layer of the earth’s atmosphere contains most weather such as rain, clouds, snow, etc. The air temperature in this layer tends to be warmer in the lower regions, and colder higher up. This would account for snow laying on the peak of mountains, or why it’s colder when you ski at the top than at the base (Center for Science Education). The stratosphere, the second layer, spans roughly 6-31 miles above ground. Unlike the troposphere, temperatures rise with altitude and also contain very little water vapor (Center for Science Education). This is the layer that contains the famous ozone layer, which is responsible for absorbing “almost all of the sun's harmful ultraviolet light” (Rutledge). This is important, because without protection, the radiation can “penetrate organisms’ protective layers, like skin, damaging DNA molecules in plants and animals” (Rutledge). The concern here is that chlorofluorocarbon molecules are diminishing this protective ozone layer, which can be detrimental for life on earth (Rutledge). In the U.S., most of this ozone depletion can be blamed on severe storm systems and high levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide/methane (BioExplorer.net). The mesosphere, spanning 31-53 miles above, is where the coldest temperatures can be found (-130 degrees Fahrenheit at the top of this layer)(Center for Science Education). In this layer exists the unique “noctilucent clouds” or “polar mesospheric clouds”, which can be characterized by their high altitude and dryness (Center for Science Education). Though this layer remains fairly unexplored, it is known for being the layer in which meteors vaporize; in other words, this is where meteors burn up (Mesosphere). The thermosphere stretches from approximately 56-311/621 miles high (Center for Science Education). Air density is extremely low in this layer, and it can be considered as outer space; “The space shuttle and the International Space Station both orbit Earth within the thermosphere” (Center for Science Education). In this layer, molecules rarely collide, and are broken apart due to UV and X-ray photons from the sun (Center for Science Education). The ionosphere, unlike the previous layers, is not confined to a specific boundary. Essentially, it is the collective group of “electrically charged atoms and molecules” within the earth's molecules (Center for Science Education). Due to high incoming energy, molecules are constantly broken and formed. The free electron characterization of this layer allows for the ionosphere to “ absorb or dampen radio signals, or they can bend radio waves, as well as reflecting the signals as described above” (Center for Science Education). The ionosphere, susceptible to change, can be influenced by weather and space weather: “hurricanes or large thunderstorm systems, can create pressure waves that ripple up into the ionosphere” and “changing magnetic and electric conditions in space… along with other events like bursts of charged particles — are called space weather and usually connected to solar activity” (10 Things to Know about the Ionosphere – NASA Solar System Exploration). This unique layer even glows (airglow- atoms/molecules emit light to release incoming energy from the sun) (10 Things to Know about the Ionosphere – NASA Solar System Exploration). The final layer, the exosphere, begins at about 300 miles high and 6200 miles thick (Exosphere). The low molecular densities result in very small collisions, explaining the numerous helium and hydrogen particles (Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia). All these layer combined allow life on earth to exist, controlling solar energy, particle activity, relates to weather (on earth and space), and impacts systems such as GPS. Though not as tangible, it is still crucial to earth’s function. Sources: “Center for Science Education.” The Troposphere | Center for Science Education, https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/atmosphere/troposphere. “Center for Science Education.” The Stratosphere | Center for Science Education, https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/atmosphere/stratosphere. Rutledge, Kim, et al. “Ozone Layer.” Edited by Jeannie Evers and Kara West, National Geographic Society, 20 May 2022, https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ozone-layer. BioExplorer.net. "Top 15 Current Environmental Issues in the US" Bio Explorer, 10 September 2022, https://www.bioexplorer.net/current-environmental-issues-usa.html/. “Center for Science Education.” The Mesosphere | Center for Science Education, https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/atmosphere/mesosphere. “Mesosphere.” NASA, NASA, 28 June 2019, https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/mesosphere/en/. “Center for Science Education.” The Thermosphere | Center for Science Education, https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/atmosphere/thermosphere#:~:text=The%20thermosphere%20is%20a%20layer,621%20miles)%20above%20our%20planet. “Center for Science Education.” The Ionosphere | Center for Science Education, https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/atmosphere/ionosphere. “10 Things to Know about the Ionosphere – NASA Solar System Exploration.” NASA, NASA, 10 Dec. 2019, https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/1127/10-things-to-know-about-the-ionosphere/. “Exosphere.” NASA, NASA, 28 June 2019, https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/exosphere/en/#:~:text=The%20exosphere%20has%20gases%20like,breathe%2C%20and%20it's%20very%20cold. Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "exosphere". Encyclopedia Britannica, 9 Aug. 2019, https://www.britannica.com/science/exosphere. Accessed 10 September 2022. Kazmeyer, Milton. “Importance of the Earth's Atmosphere.” Sciencing, 2 Mar. 2019, https://sciencing.com/importance-earths-atmosphere-5070.html.

July 16, 2022 Written by: Caroline Kim In part 3 of this JSEP series, we’ll be discussing one of the arctic’s most distinguishing characteristics: ice-ocean systems. This tangible network of forces involve not only ice and oceans, but also energy from the sun, winds, snow masses, and more. One major driving force to note is the different fluxes in the system (snowfall, radiation, momentum, precipitation, etc.). When discussing ice-ocean systems on the arctic, it’s key to differentiate between land ice and sea ice. Essentially sea ice is formed from freezing ocean water (therefore the melting of it won’t cause any displacement), whereas glacier ice is formed on land (the melting of it would cause displacement). Sea level rise can be caused by many factors, some of which include thermal expansion, acceleration of melting ice sheets, and isostasy (vertical land motion); isostasy is the idea that when an ice sheet melts off the land into the water, the pressure on that land is relieved, so it rises, causing sea levels to drop locally but rise elsewhere. Some ways in which ice breaks apart faster include low basal drag and buttressing forces: forces that oppose each other such as glacial shift/ocean currents can cause glacial undercut and cause ice shelves to break apart. In an experiment we conducted, we froze water with sediment mixed in, and let it sit out afterwards to observe the melting behavior. Some things noted were that rougher surfaces caused more friction and heat, resulting in a higher rate of melting of the ice. Additionally, finer particles such as sand melted faster and ran out of the ice than larger items such as pebbles. In a second experiment that was conducted, a cup of pure ice was frozen as well as a cup of ice containing black carbon (burned paper). Within this experiment, the melting rates and albedo (the reflectivity of a surface) were measured and compared. We determined that the lower the albedo (less reflectivity), the more energy/heat that is absorbed, and therefore the faster it melts. Since darker colors absorb more light, the ice with black carbon mixed in melted at a faster rate, and also had a cycle of positive feedback. In other words, the more it melted, the more heat it received (the black carbon settles at the bottom and as you get closer, the darker the color of ice) and the faster it melted. Fundamentally, the rate of melting in pure ice was constant while the rate of melting in the black carbon infused ice increased over time. In an effort to help prevent/protect against this, some proposed solutions include space mirrors, increased reflectivity from aerosols/oceans, increasing reflectivity in low clouds by spraying sea salt on them, and reflective glass powder, which would increase the ice surface’ albedo and slow down the melting rate. Other more behavioral solutions include taking public transit, placing taxes on carbon, reducing the amount of solar radiation that reaches the cryosphere (frozen parts of the planet), and the blocking of the entry of warm water. As more testing and research in this area is needed to work toward a more promising solution, the next and final part of this series will include more research from my JSEP group! Sources: Joint Science Education Project (Graduate students/Educators) Brita Horlings Ayobami Ogunmolasuyi Ian Raphael Joel Wilner

Written by: Caroline Kim September 5, 2022 It’s widely known that environmental concerns reach beyond just human life; it significantly influences all living organisms. The detrimental effects can be seen from many angles, one of which is endangered/extinct wildlife species. Just within North America, the Red Wolf species is threatened by “climate change and the resulting rise in sea levels” (North America’s most endangered animals). The Kemp Ridley, a sea turtle, has been endangered due to fishing. However, more recent attention to the issue has brought about more policies and systems to help rescue and protect these turtles. Overfishing can result in population diminishing not only of the collected species, but also the predators of those species and the predators of the predator. The ecosystem’s function is all interconnected, and one disruption can cause quite a bit of damage. Additionally, climate change can cause alterations in habitat (precipitation, climate, drier/damper lands, different plants, and overall population fluctuation depending on which species thrive better in the given conditions). Food chains and competition are disrupted, and new challenges are presented when a species goes extinct, or another species that relies significantly on a single species may also diminish due to a lack of resources. There are a few categories of extinction: phyletic/pseudo extinction (extinct but leaves behind an evolved version) and terminal extinction (no evolved descendants and is either destroyed at once or gradually disappearing over time). The national wildlife federation is working to protect endangered U.S. species by strengthening the endangered species act, holding agencies accountable, advocating for funding, restoring habitats, and reducing wildlife threats (Protecting Endangered Species). The Endangered Species Act recognizes the historical and ecological value of certain animals, and so it works to enforce protection from extinction (Parham). Once officially listed as an endangered species (after thorough consideration of “habitat, disease, and predation”, it is protected under the ESA; protection and research are also done in relation to the species (Parham). Sources: Magazine, Smithsonian. “North America's Most Endangered Animals.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 18 May 2011, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/north-americas-most-endangered-animals-174367735/. Iberdrola. “Extinct Species: Why Do They Disappear?” Iberdrola, Iberdrola, 22 Apr. 2021, https://www.iberdrola.com/sustainability/extinct-animals. “Protecting Endangered Species.” National Wildlife Federation, https://www.nwf.org/Our-Work/Wildlife-Conservation/Endangered-Species. Parham, Georgia, and Tina Shaw. “Preventing Extinction and Supporting Biodiversity: U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.” FWS.gov, 25 Oct. 2021, https://www.fws.gov/story/preventing-extinction-and-supporting-biodiversity.

How arctic warming impacts insect wildlife-human interactions Written by: Caroline Kim Interview: Professor Lauren E. Culler August 27, 2022 Thinking back to the post on Arctic Systems, we can recall that wildlife in the arctic have adapted in unique ways to survive the extreme climates. For example, plant life mostly consists of stubby shrubs: close to the ground to minimize energy expenditure, stay warm, and maximize nutrients. Likewise, arctic insects have significance to the ecological cycle as well as human interactions. Last week I had the opportunity to interview Professor Lauren Culler from the Environmental studies department at Dartmouth college, and I was able to gather some information on the arctic insects and some of her personal research experience. Insects in the arctic differ, physically and behaviorally, from insects elsewhere in order to survive. The two main factors that matter most are temper temperature (changes growth pattern and metabolisms), precipitation, soil moisture (mosquitoes/insects with aquatic life stages, precipitation/temperature is significant). Shrubification/change in habitat can cause preference for living areas. Just like anything in the arctic, there is a short and rapid growing season, leaving the reproduction window dormant most of the year. For example, mosquitos are around throughout June and July and the eggs are left frozen until the fall and spring. As a result, arctic insects grow faster in colder temperatures than insects in other areas. Without us/wildlife, mosquitoes have no food because mosquitos sometimes emerge earlier in the year or they emerge in higher numbers where there is more competition(in a more wet year). This idea of phenological change (change in timing of events) can cause several conflicts (mosquitoes change in emergence time). Caribou/reindeer are endothermic and have synced up reproduction cycles. However, the plants are ectothermic, so they respond in change to temperatures and grow earlier. This phenological mismatch (timing is off) makes it so that the nutrition from plants is past when animals such as Caribou have developed. Additionally, Caribou are known to change behavior according to insects. For example, they spend more time on top of windy ridges to avoid bugs, but this causes them to use up more energy and time. These ridges may also be places where there is less food for them, which further impacts the health and diets of the wildlife. On the east side of Greenland, researchers in Denmark have measured insect abundance since the mid 1990’s. Certain groups have declined, others have been steady, and others have even increased. In Kangerlussuaq, two similar wolf spider species were researched, where one is in high numbers in wet areas and the other thrives in drier areas. In one of Professor Culler’s field studies, different colored buckets were filled with water, and mosquitos and data was collected on mosquitos to see how fast they grow. Insects were also grown at different temperatures in the lab, which allowed for predator-prey experiments. Insects in darker buckets grew faster and some resulted in dying from overheating (black ones heated up faster due to lower light reflectivity). (For more details on her research feel free to look into her articles). In terms of human interaction, insects may be pests of agriculture, since there exists an interest in agriculture development in the arctic. Plus, tourism is not always pleasant with the mosquitoes, which might have economic relevance. Pollination is also important economically for its many benefits (not as important in arctic but important overall to sustain biodiversity). Insects are predators to other insects, which is important to maintaining an ecological balance. Humans destroying habitat/forests can change the temperature of the area, so conserving habitat in headwater streams can help. For example, in thermal refuge, fish swim upstream where it's colder. Overall, it is clear that one human interaction or change in temperature can set off a domino effect in arctic ecology, as is often the case in environmental sciences. However, with further research, testing, and creativity, a more permanent solution can be proposed. Sources: Special thanks to: Lauren E. Culler, Ph.D. Research Assistant Professor, Department of Environmental Studies Senior Fellow for Climate & Environment, Institute of Arctic Studies Dartmouth College Hanover, New Hampshire

August 20, 2022 Written by: Caroline Kim Research by: Iris Chen (Emory University student), Carolyn Keogh (Emory University Professor) Invasive plants are an important topic in the world of environmental sciences (you can find a previous blog focused on this topic on my page). This past week I had the chance to shadow research alongside a student (Iris Chen) and Professor (Carolyn Keogh) from Emory University in Georgia. The field based research was based around the invasive species known as Chinese Privet or Ligustrum Sinense (image below). This species originated from Asia and has been a major concern for the environment in the southern parts of the United States. Unsurprisingly, this species can grow in dense thickets, depriving nearby plants of nutrients. The data was collected at Atlanta Memorial Park near a forestry landscape with a creek very close by. A line transect was laid out in areas where the privet was previously/currently growing, and we took note of the trees within the vicinity as well as the herbaceous cover. In increments of one meter, the closest tree to the line transect was taken note of: distance of tree from transect, the DBH (diameter at breast height) of the tree, and the species of tree. Additionally, box plots were lined with flags, and the herbaceous cover on the ground were noted: types of plant species, percent of each species, and bare ground percentage. Some shrubby plants nearby included Japanese Siltgrass, Dayflower, Ground Ivy, Pokeweeds, English Ivy, Poison Ivy, and Chinese Privet. The nearby trees included various oak trees, pines, various ashes, boxelders, loblollies, maples, sweetgum, beech, and sycamore. Dead trees were not noted, and bar ground had its own percentage of bare ground noted. Further research would need to be conducted in order to study the effects that the Chinese Privet might have on the health and behavior of nearby organisms. However, thanks to the organizations that care for Atlanta Memorial Park, Chinese Privet is controlled monthly (pulled out) and new trees and plants are also occasionally planted. Cutting the privet as close to the bottom as possible is the best solution to control its spread, however, this isn’t a permanent solution. Herbicides could also be considered but the health of neighboring plants and organisms may be put in jeopardy. Images from the field: Sources: Iris Chen (Emory University) Professor Carolyn Keogh (Emory University) “Chinese Privet.” Chinese Privet | National Invasive Species Information Center, https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/terrestrial/plants/chinese-privet.